The Whiskey Rebellion. May 30, 2019

Copyright © 2019                               John F. Oyler 

May 30, 2019

The Whiskey Rebellion

The seventh and final workshop in the Bridgeville Area Historical Society’s series on George Washington’s influence on Western Pennsylvania focused on the Whiskey Rebellion and Washington’s key role in it. 

After his 1784 expedition to Western Pennsylvania, Washington concluded he should concentrate his efforts on Mount Vernon and on developing transportation on the Potomac River. Late in 1784 the Potowmack Navigation Company was formed, with him as President. At Mount Vernon he instituted a seven year crop rotation system, involving wheat, corn, and legumes and had three Pennsylvania bank barns constructed to permit threshing grain.

Nonetheless national issues continued to interest him. He was deeply concerned about the future of the confederation of thirteen states following the end of the Revolutionary War. Massachusetts’ difficulty with Shays’ Rebellion in 1786 and 1787 greatly troubled him. Consequently he enthusiastically agreed to participate in the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 and was soon selected to preside over it.

The Convention was originally intended to modify the Articles of Confederation, but the delegates quickly realized the necessity of inventing a new form of government and writing new Constitution to define it. 

A key decision was the type of legislature best suited for the new government. William Patterson’s “New Jersey Plan” called for a unicameral legislature with each state having one vote. James Madison’s “Virginia Plan” advocated a bicameral legislature with both houses having votes proportional to population.  The upper house would be selected by State Legislatures; the lower, by the general population.

After much debate the “Connecticut Compromise”, authored by Roger Sherman, was selected -- a Senate with equal votes for each state and a House of Representatives with votes proportional to population. It also specified that the nation’s executive officer, the President, would be elected by an Electoral College, composed of one Elector for each Senator and member of the House of Representatives.

Each Elector had two votes, which had to be split between candidates from two different states. No one was surprised that Washington was elected President unanimously. John Adams had the second highest vote total; he was elected Vice President.

The new President selected John Jay as Secretary of State, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph as Attorney General. His first choice for Secretary of the Treasury, Robert Morris, declined and suggested Washington’s aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton as an alternative.

A year later, when Washington organized the first Supreme Court, he nominated Jay as Chief Justice. Jay’s successor as Secretary of State was Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton and Jefferson quickly became adversaries.

Hamilton proposed the federal government assume the Revolutionary War debts from the various states, increasing the National Debt to eighty million dollars. The Compromise of 1790 traded Jefferson’s support for “assumption” for Hamilton’s support for building our new capital on the Potomac. When duties from the Tariff Act of 1789 were insufficient to support the cost of running the new government, Hamilton proposed the Distilled Spirits Duties Act, imposing a tax on the production of Whiskey. It was passed on March 3, 1791.

The excise act immediately met opposition from all the settlements west of the Alleghenies – Kentucky and the western portions of Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia. Even at seven cents a gallon it represented a significant part of a poor farmer’s disposable income. It had to be paid in cash, at a time cash was so rare that most transactions were by barter. Unquestionably it imposed an unfair burden on folks living on the frontier.

In this area resistance began with a sincere intention to work within the political system. The first meeting, July 27, 1791, recommended election of three representatives of each elective district to “collect the sense of the people in each county and communicate them to Congress”. A second meeting, on September 7, 1791, suggested that some sort of civil disobedience might be accesptable.

Concurrent with this highly responsible approach, a more aggressive group of protestors chose to take matters into their own hands. When Tax Collector Robert Johnson tried to serve a warrant against John Hamilton at Pigeon Creek, he was waylaid by sixteen men dressed in women’s clothes, and was tarred and feathered. Johnson had been hired by General John Neville.

To the frontiersmen Neville was a symbol of an elite system that exploited them. After signing a resolution opposing the Excise Act in 1791, he quickly accepted the job of excise inspector and its salary of $450 per year plus one percent of the taxes collected. Neville was a classic aristocrat, wealthy and unmindful of their situation. His home, Bower Hill was a grand mansion, valued at $5,000, and furnished extravagantly.

In 1792 Neville decided to get serious about collecting the excise tax. He rented an office from an Army officer, Captain William Faulkner, precipitating a raid by twenty “Indians” who ransacked Faulkner’s house and shot holes in a sign bearing Washington’s portrait. Another meeting of the responsible civic leaders, in Pittsburgh, urged citizens to pursue “every other legal measure that may obstruct the operation of the law until we are able to obtain its total repeal”.

Opposition to Mr. Hamilton’s Excise Tax up and down the frontier generated disagreement in Washington’s cabinet. Hamilton wanted to establish federal authority by force and believed Western Pennsylvania was the place to do it. Washington was reluctant; he knew many of the leaders personally. Attorney General Randolph found “no indictable offense” in the evidence regarding the second Pittsburgh convention. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay opposed inflammatory proclamations and military preparations.

After considerable deliberation, Washington issued a Proclamation.

It decried all actions “tending to obstruct the operation of the laws of the United States for raising a revenue upon distilled spirits”, exhorted citizens to “refrain and desist from all unlawful combinations tending to obstruct the operations of the laws” and instructed all judicial officials to enforce the excise laws.

Further action on the problem had to await the outcome of the 1792 Presidential Election. By this time Jefferson’s resistance to the Washington/Hamilton/Adams Federalist policies had initiated an opposition (Democratic-Republican) party, with ambitions of, at least, electing the Vice President.

There were now fifteen states in the Electoral College (Vermont and Kentucky had been admitted to the Union). Each Elector had two votes, but could not vote for two candidates from the same state

Washington was re-elected President with one vote from each Elector; John Adams (Federalist) was elected Vice President with 77 votes. The Democratic-Republicans split the remaining votes. New York Governor George Clinton had 50 votes, Jefferson 4, and Aaron Burr 1. 

The first year of Washington’s second term was complicated by a number of events that left little time to generate interest in enforcing the Excise Tax in the West. Great pressure was put on him to support France in its conflict with Great Britain by Francophiles. Democratic Clubs (anti-Federalist) were established in many parts of the country. Louis XVI was guillotined. Most significantly, Yellow fever in Philadelphia shut down the government. President Washington returned to Mt. Vernon to await abatement of the epidemic.

Things were quiet on the frontier. The opponents of the Excise Tax presumed that the government’s failure to enforce it was an indication their protests, both responsible and violent, had been successful. On November 22, 1793 Tax Collector Benjamin Wells was visited by six men and threatened. They ordered him to publish his resignation in the Pittsburgh Gazette or have his house burned down.

Washington had his hands full in 1794, as well. The United States government found itself beset by problems -- British warships seized American merchant ships trading with the French West Indies; the British established a fort on the Maumee River; attempts to sign a treaty with the Cherokees failed; and Louisiana Governor Carondolet established an anti-American alliance with Canada.

The Federalists advocated establishing a 10,000 man standing army, supported by 80,000 militiamen. The construction of six modern frigates was proposed and authorized. Provisional war taxes were recommended to balance the Budget. Hamilton’s “Revenue Act of 1794” included numerous internal taxes on snuff, sugar, and carriages. Efforts to enforce the existing Excise Tax were begun; John Neville was Hamilton’s instrument in Western Pennsylvania.

Washington reported that this was a moment “to establish or ruin the national character forever” and issued a Proclamation. Resistance to the law in the West was denounced. The government’s determination to enforce the law was emphasized. A reward was offered for the men who had threatened Tax Collector Wells.

In March, 1794, John Neville and Robert Johnson set out on an expedition “to visit some of the most obstinate distillers”, along the Monongahela River and the border between Washington and Fayette Counties. They were followed by a mob of sixty men, taking reprisal on distillers who had registered their stills. James Kiddoe’s still was destroyed and shots fired at his house. William Coughran’s still and mills were destroyed, and he was instructed to report this to the Pittsburgh Gazette.

Neville and his family were accosted on the highway. At Bower Hill he prepared for war. Slaves were armed and put on guard all night. Candles were burned at night to illuminate the grounds. Neville resolved to collect the taxes in July. Although he would have accepted whiskey in payment, the Excise Law required it be in cash; Hamilton insisted this be enforced.

In June,1794, a modified Excise Bill was passed with provisions that satisfied some of the frontiersmen’s complaints. Neville was no longer required to have an office in each county and was authorized $10,000 to buy a building for a tax office. Small distillers could obtain a monthly license. Excise tax cases could be heard in state (local) courts.

In May Federal District Attorney William Rawle had issued writs requiring sixty distillers to appear in Federal Court in Philadelphia. Despite the legislation that had no longer made this valid, United States Marshal David Lenox began serving the writs on June 22 in Cumberland, Bedford, and Fayette Counties. 

On July 14 Lenox was entertained in Pittsburgh at the home of Hugh Henry Brackenridge in Pittsburgh. Brackenridge, perhaps the most responsible of the locals who opposed the tax, advised him to not involve Neville in his assignment.

The next three days erupted into open rebellion. William Miller at his Peters Creek farm refused to accept the writ. Workmen in nearby fields actually fired a warning shot at Lenox and Neville. When news of this event reached a militia meeting at nearby Mingo Creek, the militiamen resolved to march to Bower Hill and demand Lenox destroy the writs.

Led by John Holcroft, thirty-seven of them showed up at dawn at Neville’s mansion. When they learned Lenox was not there, the dispute escalated into a brief battle in which Oliver Miller was killed and several other militiamen wounded. They retreated to Fort Couch where a much larger group of dissidents gathered the next day.

Led by Revolutionary War veteran Captain James MacFarlane, about five hundred men returned to Bower Hill the next afternoon. By now Neville’s small group of men had been supplemented by Major James Kirkpatrick and ten soldiers from Fort Fayette. Neville and his family escaped, leaving the military men to defend the mansion.

Once again negotiations broke down and shots were exchanged for an hour or so. During a lull the rebels thought a flag of truce had been waved. MacFarlane stepped out and was immediately killed by a shot from inside the mansion. In retaliation the rebels set fire to all the buildings, forcing the soldiers to come out and surrender.

The consequences of these events shook the frontier as well as the federal government. At a meeting at Mingo Creek Meetinghouse on July 23 David Bradford spoke passionately against the government; Brackenridge spoke in favor of negotiations. 

Three days later Bradford had the US Mail intercepted and found three letters from Pittsburgh citizens condemning the rebels’ actions. He found this to be the incentive for more aggressive action. A rally was called for Braddock’s Field on August 1. 

At least 5,000 armed men met there with the intention of marching on Pittsburgh. Sporting an elegant uniform Bradford appointed himself major-general. He advocated taking over Fort Fayette.

A six-striped flag (for four Western Pennsylvania counties and two Western Virginia counties) was raised as a symbol of independence. Somehow Brackenridge and other responsible leaders persuaded the mob that the show of strength was sufficient. Consequently they marched through the city peacefully and dispersed.

Meanwhile, in Philadelphia Hamilton advocated military action in Western Pennsylvania, a nationalized militia of 12,000 men to enforce internal taxes. Supreme Court Justice James Wilson confirmed that a state of rebellion existed in Western Pennsylvania, giving Washington a legal basis for mobilizing troops. Washington issued a preliminary call for troops.

He also issued a Proclamation ordering insurgents “to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective abodes” by September 1 and sent a Peace Commission to Western Pennsylvania. The Commission consisted of Attorney General William Bradford, Pennsylvania State Supreme Court Justice Jasper Yeates, and Senator James Ross and had authority to grant amnesty for past offenses.

On August 14 a meeting at Parkinson’s Ferry (now Monongahela City) drew 250 delegates. Bradford urged open rebellion; he apparently had visions of becoming Emperor of a new country. Brackenridge, Albert Gallatin, and William Findley advocated restraint. The delegates agreed to submit to municipal laws of the respective states, but not necessarily to federal laws. They strongly protested bringing citizens to trial outside their neighborhood. They agreed to appoint a committee to meet with state or federal officials to negotiate an end to upheavals, against Bradford’s wishes.

When the Peace Commission met with the Parkinson’s Ferry Committee, it appeared that a crisis had been avoided. The Commission offered general amnesty for past offenses, a statement of fealty from the committee, and a public vote on submission by September 15. Nonetheless, privately, William Bradford advised Hamilton to mobilize the army. He had Washington’s full approval of this move.

The debate continued when the Parkinson’s Ferry Committee met at Redstone Old Fort (now Brownsville) to discuss the Peace Commission’s proposal. Gallatin and Brackenridge argued for restraint and submission; David Bradford harangued for war. The delegates voted to accept the proposals, 34 to 27, and agreed to have the public vote on the question: “Will the people submit to the laws of the United States upon the terms proposed by the commissioners of the United States?” A committee of twelve was appointed to continue negotiations.

The Commissioners felt the decision was indecisive and that the army would still be required. Bradford and Yeates returned to Philadelphia; Ross stayed to observe the September 11 vote. With the exception of a few local areas most of the votes were for submission. In total there were 3,280 votes for submission out of 13,800 eligible (taxable) voters. It became obvious that was insufficient support for confrontation to oppose a large federal army.

Most of the settlers in this area voted for submission – Richard Boyce, John Canon, Moses Coulter, John Fawcett, Alexander Gilfillan, John Herriott, William Lea, Moses Middleswarth, Henry Noble, and James Ramsey. Separately, we know that Christian Lesnett was opposed to the rebels, largely because of his respect for John Neville.

On October 2, delegates to a meeting at Parkinson’s Ferry made unanimous oaths of fealty to the federal government. William Findley and David Redick were dispatched to convince Washington that all was well and that sending the army was counterproductive. The President however announced that the time for “overtures of forgiveness” had ended. He reviewed the northern wing of the troops at Carlisle and followed them to Bedford. He then rode south to Fort Cumberland and reviewed the southern wing.

He then returned to Philadelphia, leaving Virginia Governor, General Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee as the military commander, subordinate to Hamilton, the civilian head of the expedition. Washington hoped Hamilton could soon apprehend rebel leaders David Bradford and Herman Husband and send them “to Philadelphia for their winter quarters”. Bradford escaped down the Ohio River to Louisiana, but Husband was arrested in Bedford and incarcerated in Philadelphia. 

When the army reached Pittsburgh, they found themselves with no opposition. On November 13, hereinafter known as “the dreadful night”, they arrested 150 alleged rebels, including twenty of their leaders. The captives were treated inhumanely and eventually imprisoned in Pittsburgh.

With David Bradford escaped down the Ohio River, Hamilton needed a scapegoat. Brackenridge was a logical candidate; he had not accepted amnesty for past offenses. When queried about this, he replied “I have no past offenses”. After discussing Brackenridge with Isaac Craig and the Nevilles, Hamilton concluded he had misinterpreted the role of the moderates in trying to defuse the resistance. Brackenridge was exonerated.

On November 19 the bulk of the army returned East, to be mustered out. Twenty prisoners under heavy guard left for Philadelphia on November 25. On November 29 General Lee issued a blanket pardon to everyone, excepting twenty eight men specifically charged. Eventually twenty four men were indicted for high treason. Ten of them were tried; the other fourteen were never apprehended.

Two men – Philip Wigle and John Mitchell – were convicted and sentenced to death by hanging. When

many Philadelphia citizens petitioned President Washington for leniency, both Wigle and Mitchell were pardoned. He had successfully survived the first major challenge to federal authority with a combination of firmness and compassion.

Bradford was pardoned by President John Adams. He returned to Pennsylvania to sell his property here and move his family to Louisiana. Brackenridge was elected to the Pennsylvania State Supreme Court and served until his death in 1815. Albert Gallatin went on to a distinguished career as Secretary of the Treasury, Ambassador to France and England, and as President of the National Bank of New York.

Alexander Hamilton’s wife suffered a miscarriage while he was adventuring in Western Pennsylvania; he promptly resigned from Washington’s Cabinet and returned to New York to resume his law practice and to manipulate Federalist politics. His opposition to Aaron Burr’s candidacy for Governor of New York precipitated the duel on July 11, 1804, in which he was killed.

Washington successfully completed his second term as President, set a precedent by declining a third term, and retired to Mount Vernon. Ironically, one of his commercial accomplishments there was the establishment of a distillery capable of producing 11,000 gallons of whiskey in one year. He died on December 14, 1799.

In retrospect, George Washington’s involvement in inventing a brand new kind of government during his Presidency may well be his greatest achievement, surpassing even his magnificent leadership during the Revolutionary War.

The “Second Tuesday” workshop series is going to take a hiatus, at least for a few months. The two series – Bridgeville High School History and Washington in Western Pennsylvania – have been especially rewarding.